= Law == basics Rechtspositivismus vs. Naturrecht … ad „Begriff des Rechts“ und auch ad „Wirken des Rechts“ Rechtspositivismus … allgemein: Das Recht ist positiv wirkend, so wie es gesetzt ist und durchgesetzt wird (sowohl geschrieben als auch die Wirkung über Richter, etc) … verwandtes Konzept: Veränderbarkeit. Positives Recht ist veränderbar (wird bewusst als Vor- und Nachteil verstanden) … Niklas Luhmann sagt (laut Roellecke 2009, Seite 509) gar „Positivität ist nichts als jederzeitige Abänderbarkeit des Rechtes“ … in übertriebenem Extrem wurde es als Verteidigungslinie der Nazis missbraucht: „wir haben nur Befehle/Recht ausgeführt“ Naturrecht … es gibt Konventionen und natürliche Regeln, die nicht festgeschrieben sind und mitbeachtet werden müssen … bedarf einer Hierarchie von Rechten, wie zB einem Verständnis von Moral an der Spitze Annexion := völkerrechtswidrige Einverleibung von Staatsgebiet mit Änderung der Souveränität (ergo, A besetzt B und A deklariert B als eigenes Staatsgebiet) Okkupation (wie in Ö 1938) := Besetzung von Staatsgebiet *ohne* Änderung der Souveränität (ergo, A besetzt B aber A deklariert B *nicht* als eigenes Staatsgebiet) sunset clause := provision/law with expiration date Staat := {Staatsgebiet, Staatsvolk, Staatsgewalt} „Drei-Elemente-Lehre“ laut Georg Jellinek (1900) Besatzung := „Abkommen betreffend die Gesetze und Gebräuche des Landkriegs“ Den Haag 18-10-1907 Artikel 42 Ein Gebiet gilt als besetzt, wenn es sich tatsächlich in der Gewalt des feindlichen Heeres befindet. Die Besetzung erstreckt sich nur auf die Gebiete, wo diese Gewalt hergestellt ist und ausgeübt werden kann. Territorialitätsprinzip := Gerichte des Ortes des Verbrechens ist zuständig Personalitätsprinzip := Staatsbürger des Täters (aktives Prinzip) oder Opfers (passives Prinzip) führt zu Zuständigkeit des jeweiligen Staats (zB wegen Sprache oder räumlicher Distanz) Weltrechtsprinzip := Straftat gegen international geschützte Rechtsgüter erlaubt auch Zuständigkeit ohne irgendwelchen Bezug zum Land (§ 64 Abs. 1 Nr. 6 StGB) Stimson Doctrine (1932) := policy of nonrecognition of states created as a result of a war of aggression Römisches Statut (1998) := vertragliche Grundlage des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofs (IStGH) TODO: 1949 Genfer Konventionen 1907 Kriegsordnung 1977 Zusatzprotokolle == Latin phrases ab initio:: from the beginning ab irato:: from/by an angry person ad litem:: to the lawsuit ad quod damnum:: means “to whatever damage”, "according to the harm", or "in proportion to the harm" casum sentit dominus:: accident is felt by the owner certum est quod certum reddi potest:: means “it is certain, whatever can be rendered certain”, “… if it can be rendered certain” cessante ratione legis cessat ipsa lex:: means “when the reason for the law ceases, the law itself ceases” (a rule of law becomes ineffective when the reason for its application has ceased to exist or does not correspond to the reality anymore) contra legem:: against law contra mundum:: against the world da mihi factum, dabo tibi ius:: means “Give me the fact, I will give you the law”, a legal principle of Roman law that parties to a suit should present the facts and the judge will rule on the law that governs them de jure:: by law eo ipso:: by that very (act) erga omnes:: en. “in relation to everyone”, used in law (esp. international law) to denote a kind of universal obligation ignorantia juris non excusat:: also “ignorantia legis non excusat”, also “ignorantia legis neminem excusat”, means “ignorance of the law is no excuse”; Legal principle whereby ignorance of a law does not allow one to escape liability ipso facto:: by the fact itself ipso iure:: by the law itself ius ad bellum:: en. “law towards war”, refers to the laws that regulate the reasons for going to war. Typically, this would address issues of self-defense or preemptive strikes. ius cogens:: en. “compelling law”; a fundamental principle of international law considered to have acceptance among the international community of states as a whole and from which no derogation is permitted. ius in bello:: en. “law in war”; refers to the "laws" that regulate the conduct of combatants during a conflict. Typically, this would address issues of who or what is a valid target, how to treat prisoners, and what sorts of weapons can be used. The word jus is also commonly spelled ius. lex artis:: law of the skill lex paciferat:: en. “the law shall bring peace”; is the motto of the European Gendarmerie Force lex parsimoniae:: en. “law of succinctness”; also known as Occam's razor malum in se:: wrong in itself malum prohibitum:: wrong due to being prohibited nemo est supra legem:: nobody is above the law non bis in idem:: en. “not twice in the same thing”; is a legal doctrine to the effect that no legal action can be instituted twice for the same cause of action non est factum:: en. “it is not [my] deed”, means a doctrine in contract law that allows a signing party to escape performance of the agreement. A claim of "non est factum" means that the signature on the contract was signed by mistake, without knowledge of its meaning, but was not done so negligently. A successful plea would make the contract void ab initi nulla poena sine lege:: no penalty without a law pacta sunt servanda:: en. “agreements must be kept” or “contracts must be honoured”; means indication of the binding power of treaties. One of the fundamental rules of international law. quid pro quo:: what for what quod est necessarium est licitum:: what is necessary is lawful ratio legis:: en. “reasoning of law”; a law's foundation or basis sine poena nulla lex:: en. “without penalty, there is no law” == Other phrases margin of appreciation:: UN legal term equivalent to subsidarity in EU; "left to be decided by domestic law" (the legal question is not resolved internationally but the national law has to decide) == Legal organizations • Internationale Strafgerichtshof (Den Haag) • Internationale Gerichtshof (Den Haag) • Internationale Gerichtshof für das ehemalige Jugoslawien (Den Haag) • Ständige Schiedshof (Den Haag) == Legislative events • Haager Friedenskonferenz (1899) • Haager Friedenskonferenz (1907) • Pariser Friedenskonferenz (1919) • Briand-Kellogg-Pakt == European Union === How to make a law 1. Consultation procedure • consult the public • consult general secretary (often leads to discussion in media) 2. Special Cabinet meeting 3. Commission meeting (simple majority suffices to pass law)⇒ proposal 4. Translation into all languages (very fast process) 5. Parliament discusses proposal (“first reading”) 6. Ministers in European Council discuss 7. European Council proposes modification 8. Parliament discusses proposal (“second reading”) 9. iterate between step 6–8 10. before infinite, refer to Conciliation Committee == International Law A course by UCL by Pierre d'Argent (Université catholique de Louvain) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17dbppFxbCs&list=PLj3bSusRimZNEIPYNl_7nk2cdoqa48WmY • (Private versus Public) International Law • 1945-06-26 Signature of Charter of United nation in San Francisco (WW2 in Asia was still going on) “Charter of the United Nations and Statute of the International Court of Justice” https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/CTC/uncharter.pdf “The Purposes of the United Nations are: To maintain international peace and security […]” actor of international law:: entities and persons that in one way or another appear in one way or another on the international stage (states, NATO, WTO, NGO, individuals like religious leaders, …) … has a bearing/impact on law subject:: having a legal personality under international law having rights and/or obligations; individuals are passive subjects of international law and therefore do not create rights/obligations by ourselves Montevideo convention 1933:: a state is constituted {territory, population, effective government, capacity to enter into relations with other states}. However, the fourth criterion is considered to be included in ‘effective government’. These elements identify a state, However, a state can still exist after (e.g.) losing its effective government (e.g. Germany after defeat of the Third Reich) territory:: natural area attached to the crust of this planet; clear/undisputed borders are not required state recognition:: discretionary, unilateral act and thus no obligation to recognize any state as a state is given and ‘declaratory act’ can happen at any point of time; mostly done explicitly and publicly but not required; e.g. contracting a treaty does not imply state recognition; only establishment of diplomatic relations requires state recognition; recognition is a political decision, but has legal consequences regarding relations between states Unilateral secession:: one-sided split of one state from another … is not prohibited as such under international law 2012-11 UN:: accorded the non-member observer status to Palastine status does not imply recognition of state 2010 advisory opinion regarding Kosovo:: “the scope of the principle of territorial integrity is confined to the sphere of relations between states” Article 73: “Members of the United Nations which have or assume responsibilities for the administration of territories whose peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-government recognize the principle that the interests of the inhabitants of these territories are paramount” UN charta: Chapter XII: International Trusteeship System Article 75 “The United Nations shall establish under its authority an international trusteeship system for the administration and supervision of such territories as may be placed thereunder by subsequent individual agreements. These territories are hereinafter referred to as trust territories.” Resolution 1514 (XV) on 1960-12-14: “Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples” state continuity and state succession (c.f. German unification) 1866 German unification: GDR (German Democratic Republic, 1949–1990) ceased to exist, Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) continued to exist as state, FRG continued the legal personality of the German Reich 2011 South Sudan became independent of Sudan → South Sudan is a successor state of Sudan & Sudan continues the international personality of the Republic of Sudan 1993 Czechoslovakia split into two states → no entity claimed successorship of Czechoslovakia, to now legal entities emerged, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist state continuity implies legal binding to contracts related to former borders; state succession does not decolonialization as example: borders between colonies taken over as international borders when becoming independent In domestic law, the constitution defines how laws come about (→ Hans Kelsen named it „Grundnorm“). In international law, a hierarchy in laws is given. validity := confirmity with higher norms a state cannot make law on behalf of other states no state stands above any other so the subjects are organized in a flat structure all states are equally sovereign in law how is the notion of sovereignty compatible with international law? municipal legal system := turn to the State Constitution LOTUS case: 1. in 1926 a French and a Turkish ship collided and eight Turkish sailors drowned 2. in Constantinopel the first officer of the French ship was convicted 3. the officer complained that Constantinopel has no jurisdiction 4. the case was transferred to the Permanent Court of International Justice (predecessor to the International Court of Justice established in 1946) “Article 38(1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice is generally recognized as a definitive statement of the sources of international law” via EN Wikipedia section “Modern view” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sources_of_international_law Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice 1. The Court, whose function is to decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are submitted to it, shall apply: 1. international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting states; 2. international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law; 3. the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations; 4. subject to the provisions of Article 59, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law. 2. This provision shall not prejudice the power of the Court to decide a case ex aequo et bono, if the parties agree thereto. ⇒ no other competences exist to settle disputes *teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations* • who? subjective. • reference to teachings (franz. la doctrine) is rather unique. • bases law onto actual practice. *if the parties agree thereto.* • paragraph 2 defines an exception for the formal sources of international law mentioned in paragraph 1 • paragraph 2 defines: if both parties (to the pending dispute) agree, then a decision can be made with the goal of equity customary international law (paragraph 1b) • codified neither in domestic nor international law • is general in scope (= binding on all states and on international organizations, it does not suffice if only two parties practice it) ⇒ customary i.l. = “general international law” in contrast to “treaties” = only binding on the contracting parties • two elements theory := state practice (“general practice”, objective element) and opinio iuris (“accepted as law”, “opinio juris sive necessitatis”, subjective element) • state practice needs to be recurrent in time & space and general and regular and consistent over time and repeated to be considered as ‘custom’ • opinio iuris is subjective … shall be understood as ‘intent to make custom’ … “the State(s) must feel that they are conforming to what amounts to a legal obligation” What happens when the practice of the States is in breach of an existing custom? • is it wrongful? is it a new custom replacing the existing custom? topic is normativity. • if law = power, then law would “just be an apology for power” (“apology”). if law = reality, then there would not be a law as law is not normative. if rules are disconnected to reality, they would be very normative, but would lack any effectiveness (“utopian”). • tension how things are (“apology”) and how things should be (“utopia”) is always present 3 problems with customary law: 1. Is it possible for a customary rule to emerge if one state objects to the practice of the other states? two situations: 1. objecting state is powerful enough of prevent the rule from emerging 2. state constantly objects to practice of others ‘persistent objector principle’: objector is not bound of the new custom (c.f. CASE(ICJ) “Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case (1951)”) 2. Are new states bound by existing customs? 3. Are regional or local customs compulsory for a certain state? (c.f. CASE(ICJ) “Asylum case (1950)” Columbia versus Peru → decision “I.C.J., Right of passage over indian territory (1960)”) paradox: the more local/regional an alleged customary rule is, the higher the standard of proof will be required digests of state practices := academic/political publication informing about customs (usually by public institutions like ministry of the exterior) → Institut de Droit international (IDI) [private body, max. 132 legal experts, since 1873] → International Law Commission (ILC) [max. 34 members elected by United Nations General Assembly every 5 years, since 1924] actually interacts with memberstate representatives and asks questions treaty • agreement at international scale • treaty to establish treaties: • Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) [114 states signed it until now] • Article 2: applies to “an international agreements between states” (→ only states) • treaty acc. to Vienna convention := “An international agreement concluded in written form and governed by international law whether embodied in a single instrument or in two or more related instruments and whatever its particular designations” • Vienna convention on treaties between states and one or several international organizations, or between international organizations (1986) (→ includes organizations now) [lacks sufficient ratifications though] • Contracts are governed by domestic law. Political agreements are gentlemen's agreement. • treaties are those agreements where parties tacitly or expressly agree to submit to international law negotiations • deliberately unregulated (pace, location, representatives, …) • first step is that involved parties agree it to be a good idea • what is regulated: • persons sitting at the negotiating tables must produce appropriate full powers • full powers (acc. to Vienna Convention, Article 2 § 1c) := “a document emanating from the competent authority of a state designating a person or persons to represent the state for negotiating, adopting or authenticating the text of a treaty, for expressing the consent of the state to be bound by a treaty, for expressing the consent of the state to be bound by a treaty, or for accomplishing any other act with respect to a treaty” • Heads of State, Heads of Government and Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Heads of diplomatic missions, … are assumed to have full powers by the convention without presenting documents Article 10 of Vienna Convention signature = end of negotiations signatures are usually referenced by place and date by signing a treaty, a state *may* express its consent to be bound by the treaty (it certainly expresses consent to accept the form of final closure of the treaty how it comes into effect) either it binds both parties legally if they express this meaning of the signature during negotiations or an additional act (‘ratification’ / acceptance / approval) is required if they don't express this meaning during negotiations Article 12 of Vienna Convention: • the treaty provides that the signature shall have that effect, or • it is otherwise established that the negotiating parties were agreed that the signature would have such effect, or • the intention of the negotiating parties to give that effect to the signature appears from the full powers of the representatives involved or such intention was expressed during the negotiations. multilateral case → “entry into force” by signature of all parties, ratification by a defined threshold of parties, ratification by all parties, or some defined time after signature/ratification depositary := designated party which receives instruments of ratification Article 77 of Vienna Convention = functions of depositary Article 18 of Vienna Convention = obligation “to refrain from acts which would defeat the object and purpose of the treaty” until ratification President Woodrow Wilson condemned secret agreements at the end of WW1 (1918) “the day of conquest and agrrandizement is gone by; so is also the day of secret covenants entered into in the interest of particular governments and likely at some unlooked-for moment to upset the peace of the world.” ⇒ Fourteen Points, 1918. Article 1: “Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view” ⇒ Article 18, Governant of the League of Nations: legal matters must be registered with the Secretary to be published “No such treaty or international engagement shall be binding until so registered” ⇒ United Nations Treaty Series … database of published agreements, today UN organs ignore any reference to non-registered treaties ⇒ lead to a change in diplomacy Vienna Convention, Article 2, par 1d: “reservation means a unilateral statement, however phrased or named, made by a state, when signing, ratifying, accepting, approving or acceeding to a treaty, whereby it purports to exclude or to modify the legal effect of certain provisions of the treaty in their application to that state” temporal element: “when signing, … acceeding to a treaty” ensures the reservation must be stated before the acceptance limits: • reservations can be made only, if allowed by the treaty • reservations can be made only, if it is one of the certain allowed ones by the treaty • reservation must not be incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty effects: • Article 21, par 1b: other parties are only bound to the treaty in a way like the reserving party (i.e. excludes reserved provisions) • Article 21, par 2: reservation does not modify the provisions of the treaty for the other parties to the treaty inter se (i.e. includes reserved provisions) (reciprocal property) reservation voiced and no response? reservation is accepted automatically after 1y other party may declare that treaty does not come into effect if reservation gets accepted and then treaty does not apply between the reserving party and the opposing party (Article 20, par 4b) validaty := treaty must satisfy certain property to be able to come into effect Article 42 → valid only through criteria defined in Vienna Convention: “The validity of a treaty or of the consent of a State to be bound by a treaty may be impeached only through the application of the present Convention” 1. null because the contracting parties had no legal capacity 2. null because no consent was not given defect on consent: Article 27: “A party may not invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to perform a treaty. This rule is without prejudice to article 46.” Article 46: 1) “A State may not invoke the fact that its consent to be bound by a treaty has been expressed in violation of a provision of its internal law regarding competence to conclude treaties as invalidating its consent unless that violation was manifest and concerned a rule of its internal law of fundamental importance” 2) “A violation is manifest if it would be objectively evident to any State conducting itself in the matter in accordance with normal practice and in good faith.” thus domestic law in general cannot yield a treaty invalid unless e.g. if domestic law says that the negotiating party of a state had no right to conclude the treaty, then the domestic law can make the international treaty invalid. legal CASE(ICJ): Cameroun vs. Nigeria (2002) → decision ICJ: limitation of a Head of State's capacity was given? if so, Nigeria would have had to inform Cameroun about the limitation! Article 48 “Error” Article 49 “Fraud” Article 50 “Corruption” Article 51 “Coercion exercised on the representative” Article 52 “Coercion of a State by the threat or use of force” “A treaty is void if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force in violation of the principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations” threat or use of force … militarily? economically? politically? heavily debated during establishment of Vienna Convention ⇒ only militarily ⇒ a peace treaty imposed by the aggressor would be invalid ⇒ a peace treaty imposed by the victim acting in self-defense would be *valid* 3. null because its very object is impermissible (Article 6 “Every State possesses capacity to conclude treaties.”) Article 53 “A treaty is void if, at the time of its conclusion, it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law.” peremptory norm := norm accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. → no modifications/derogation allowed = ius cogens (in contrast to ius dispositivum) IJC statute, Article 38, par 1c “the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations” == International law documents • Nuremberg Principles (1945) • International Humanitarian Law • Armistice Agreement and Regularization of War (1820; Government of Great Colombia & Spanish Crown) • Geneva Conventions (1949) • Protocol I (1977) • Protocol II (1977) • Protocol III (2005) • Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) • UN Charta (1945) Relevant jurists: • Hugo Grotius (1583 – 1645) === Nuremberg Principles https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_principles 1. Any person who commits an act which constitutes a crime under international law is responsible therefor and liable to punishment. 2. The fact that internal law does not impose a penalty for an act which constitutes a crime under international law does not relieve the person who committed the act from responsibility under international law. 3. The fact that a person who committed an act which constitutes a crime under international law, acted as Head of State or responsible government official, does not relieve him from responsibility under international law. 4. The fact that a person acted pursuant to order of his Government or of a superior does not relieve him from responsibility under international law, provided a moral choice was in fact possible to him. 5. Any person charged with a crime under international law has the right to a fair trial on the facts and law. 6. The crimes hereinafter set out are punishable as crimes under international law: (a) Crimes against peace: (i) Planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a war of aggression or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances; (ii) Participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the acts mentioned under (i). (b) War crimes: Violations of the laws or customs of war which include, but are not limited to, murder, ill-treatment or deportation to slave labor or for any other purpose of civilian population of or in occupied territory; murder or ill-treatment of prisoners of war or persons on the Seas, killing of hostages, plunder of public or private property, wanton destruction of cities, towns, or villages, or devastation not justified by military necessity. (c) Crimes against humanity: Murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation and other inhumane acts done against any civilian population, or persecutions on political, racial, or religious grounds, when such acts are done or such persecutions are carried on in execution of or in connection with any crime against peace or any war crime. Leaders, organizers, instigators and accomplices participating in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to commit any of the foregoing crimes are responsible for all acts performed by any persons in execution of such plan. 7. Complicity in the commission of a crime against peace, a war crime, or a crime against humanity as set forth in Principle VI is a crime under international law. === International Humanitarian Law TODO https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/gciv-1949/article-55 === Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) TODO === Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union TODO https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/treaty/char_2012/oj/eng === UN Charta content “Article 4: 1. Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states which accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations. 2. The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.” “Article 7: There are established as the principal organs of the United Nations: a General Assembly, a Security Council, an Economic and Social Council, a Trusteeship Council, an International Court of Justice, and a Secretariat” “Article 23: The Security Council shall consist of eleven Members of the United Nations. The Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America shall be permanent members of the Security Council […]” “Article 27: 1. Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of seven members. 3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of seven members including the concurring votes of the permanent members ; provided that, in decisions under Chapter VI, and under paragraph 3 of Article 52, a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting.” “Article 41: The Security Council may decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to be employed to give effect to its decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the United Nations to apply such measures. […]” “Article 42: Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security.” “Article 92: The International Court of Justice shall be the principal judicial organ of the United Nations” === Organs related to International Law • UN • FAO:: Food and Agriculture Organization • ICAO:: International Civil Aviation Organization • IFAD:: International Fund for Agricultural Development • ILO:: International Labour Organization • IMO:: International Maritime Organization • IMF:: International Monetary Fund • ITU:: International Telecommunication Union • UNESCO:: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization • UNIDO:: United Nations Industrial Development Organization • UNWTO:: World Tourism Organization • UPU:: Universal Postal Union • WBG:: World Bank Group • WHO:: World Health Organization • WIPO:: World Intellectual Property Organization • WMO:: World Meteorological Organization • UNDP:: United Nations Development Programme • UNICEF:: United Nations Children's Fund • UNCDF:: United Nations Capital Development Fund • WFP:: World Food Programme • UNEP:: United Nations Environment Programme • UNFPA:: United Nations Population Fund • UN-HABITAT:: United Nations Human Settlements Programme • UNV:: United Nations Volunteers • https://www.ohchr.org/en/ohchr_homepage == EU === Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2009) via EN Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_of_the_European_Union&oldid=1302493502#Content 1. “Dignity” guarantees the right to life and personal integrity and prohibits torture, slavery, the death penalty, eugenic practices and reproductive human cloning. Its provisions are mostly based on the ECHR, although Article 1 closely reflects Article 1 of the German Basic Law. 2. “Freedoms” covers liberty, privacy, protection of personal data, marriage, thought, religion, expression, assembly, education, work, property and asylum. 3. “Equality” covers equality before the law, prohibition of all discrimination including on basis of disability, age and sexual orientation, cultural, religious and linguistic diversity, the rights of children and the elderly. 4. “Solidarity” covers social and workers' rights including the right to fair working conditions, protection against unjustified dismissal, and access to health care, social and housing assistance, environmental protection and consumer protection. 5. “Citizen's Rights” covers the rights of the EU citizens such as the right to vote and right to candidacy in elections to the European Parliament and municipal elections and the right to move freely within the EU. It also includes several administrative rights such as a right to good administration, to access documents and to petition the European Parliament. 6. “Justice” covers justice issues such as the right to an effective remedy, a fair trial, to the presumption of innocence, the principle of legality, non-retrospectivity and double jeopardy. 7. “General Provisions” concerns the interpretation and application of the Charter. These issues are dealt with above. === European Convention on Human Rights (1953) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europ%C3%A4ische_Menschenrechtskonvention • Article 1 – respecting rights • Article 2 – life • Article 3 – torture • Article 4 – servitude • Article 5 – liberty and security • Article 6 – fair trial • Article 7 – retroactivity • Article 8 – privacy • Article 9 – conscience and religion • Article 10 – expression • Article 11 – association • Article 12 – marriage • Article 13 – effective remedy • Article 14 – discrimination • Article 15 – derogations • Article 16 – foreign parties • Article 17 – abuse of rights • Article 18 – permitted restrictions == AT === Discrimination Bundes-Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, Fassung vom 04.11.2024 § 2. (6) Geschlecht im Sinne dieses Bundesgesetzes umfasst Geschlechtsmerkmale, Geschlechtsidentität, Geschlechtsausdruck und Geschlechterrolle § 13. (1) Auf Grund der ethnischen Zugehörigkeit, der Religion oder der Weltanschauung, des Alters oder der sexuellen Orientierung – insbesondere unter Bedachtnahme auf den Familienstand oder den Umstand, ob jemand Kinder hat – darf im Zusammenhang mit einem Dienst- oder Ausbildungsverhältnis gemäß § 1 Abs. 1 niemand unmittelbar oder mittelbar diskriminiert werden § 13. (2) Abs. 1 gilt nicht für unterschiedliche Behandlungen aus Gründen der Staatsangehörigkeit sowie eine Behandlung, die sich aus der Rechtsstellung von Staatsangehörigen dritter Staaten oder staatenloser Personen ergibt. === Neutralitätsgesetz Neutralitätsgesetz, Fassung vom 08.04.2023 https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10000267&FassungVom=2023-04-08 Artikel 1: (1) Zum Zwecke der dauernden Behauptung seiner Unabhängigkeit nach außen und zum Zwecke der Unverletzlichkeit seines Gebietes erklärt Österreich aus freien Stücken seine immerwährende Neutralität. Österreich wird diese mit allen ihm zu Gebote stehenden Mitteln aufrechterhalten und verteidigen. (2) Österreich wird zur Sicherung dieser Zwecke in aller Zukunft keinen militärischen Bündnissen beitreten und die Errichtung militärischer Stützpunkte fremder Staaten auf seinem Gebiete nicht zulassen. Artikel 2: Mit der Vollziehung dieses Bundesverfassungsgesetzes ist die Bundesregierung betraut.